The Martyr’s Mirror also touches on economic coercion, particularly in how Anabaptists were often persecuted through economic means. For example, they faced bans on their ability to participate in certain trades or professions, and in some cases, their property was seized. This was part of a broader pattern of social and economic marginalization, designed to pressure them into conforming to the dominant religious and political systems of the time.
Economic coercion was used as a tool of control, making it difficult for Anabaptists to sustain their livelihoods and forcing them into economic hardship as part of the persecution they endured. This aspect highlights the multifaceted nature of their suffering, not only through physical violence but also through social and economic exclusion.
\The Trail of Blood and Resistance to the State and Economic Coercion
J.M. Carroll’s The Trail of Blood (1931) is a well-known work among Baptists, particularly those who hold to a Landmarkist or successionist view of church history. It argues that there has been an unbroken line of independent, persecuted Christian groups since the time of Christ, outside of the Roman Catholic Church. While largely discredited by mainstream historians, Carroll’s narrative reflects a strong resistance to ecclesiastical, political, and economic coercion, which is relevant when discussing broader theological resistance movements.
J.M. Carroll’s The Trail of Blood (1931) is a well-known work among Baptists, particularly those who hold to a Landmarkist or successionist view of church history. It argues that there has been an unbroken line of independent, persecuted Christian groups since the time of Christ, outside of the Roman Catholic Church. While largely discredited by mainstream historians, Carroll’s narrative reflects a strong resistance to ecclesiastical, political, and economic coercion, which is relevant when discussing broader theological resistance movements.
Nevertheless, the victors write history, and that’s why so much of this is either suppressed, reframed, or dismissed. But the evidence is still there if you know where to look. The connections aren’t always found in neat doctrinal statements or institutional records—they’re found in persecution records, exile movements, underground networks, and, ultimately, the blood of martyrs.
It’s not a paper trail because many of these groups didn’t have the luxury of preserving their own written histories. Their testimonies survive in the accusations of their enemies, the edicts of rulers trying to stamp them out, and the scattered remnants of their communities. The real continuity isn’t just in doctrine, but in resistance, in suffering, and in the refusal to conform to state-imposed religion.
That’s why it’s called a Trail of Blood—because it’s written in the lives of those who refused to bow to the powers of their time, whether it was Rome, Constantinople, medieval Catholicism, or Protestant state churches. And that’s what makes it real.
Kazaria, Synagogues, and Acephalic Churches
One of the most fascinating intersections is Kazaria, a region where Judaism was embraced by segments of the ruling elite, but also where Jewish-Christian and Jewish-Islamic interactions flourished. It wasn’t a monolithic conversion event—there were already movements in the region that had Old Testament influences, Sabbatarian leanings, and connections to diasporic Jewish communities. Many of these dissident Christian groups, such as the Paulicians and Bogomils, likely had cultural and theological exchanges with Jewish sects, leading to accusations that they were practicing a form of Judaism.
This also ties into the Bay Abaddon, mentioned in the Jewish Encyclopedia, as a center of dialogue and theological cross-pollination in the Middle East. If places like this served as intellectual hubs where Jewish, Christian, and even Gnostic thinkers debated and exchanged ideas, it makes sense that certain dissident Christian groups would absorb elements of Jewish interpretation, liturgical structure, and even resistance strategies against imperial religion.
Accusations of “Being Jewish”
Throughout history, accusations of being “Jews” followed groups that rejected centralized authority, sacramental hierarchies, and state-imposed dogma. This was common with:
Cathars – Accused of “Judaizing” because of their rejection of Roman Catholic structures and their asceticism.
Bogomils – Their dualism and rejection of material wealth drew comparisons to Jewish and even Manichaean thought.
Paulicians – Their emphasis on scripture and rejection of icons resembled Jewish aniconism.
Kazarians – Not just converts to Judaism, but also a diverse people group that had Jewish-Christian and Jewish-Islamic interactions, leading to later myths and misinformation.
The Wandering Connection: Gypsies, Zingari, and Armenia
Even the etymology of words related to wandering peoples—such as Gypsy (Zingari)—ties back to Eastern origins. Many of these wandering groups had been displaced by religious persecution, exiled from Byzantium, and forced into Western Europe. The Alethinoi (the “true ones”) and various Levy-linked groups in Eastern Europe further reflect a kind of diaspora of dissenters, people who rejected state control over faith and instead carried their traditions across vast regions.
The Bulgarian connection, where Bogomils and Paulicians influenced movements in the South of France, is another major historical conduit. From Armenia to the Balkans, and then to Languedoc, these groups migrated, adapted, and maintained their theological resistance, leading to later accusations that they were not just heretics but a foreign, almost stateless people—much like the Jews were portrayed.
Far from being isolated heresies, these movements were part of a much larger conversation happening across Jewish and dissident Christian communities. Whether in Kazaria, Bulgaria, Armenia, or the intellectual circles of the Bei Abedan or Bay Abaddon, they represented a rejection of centralized control in both political and religious structures.
The accusations of “Jewishness” weren’t just slanders—they reflected an actual structural, intellectual, and sometimes genealogical connection between these groups and the synagogue model. This strengthens the argument that the Trail of Blood isn’t just about theological resistance to Rome, but a deeper historical undercurrent of decentralized, scripturally-centered communities surviving against empire after empire.
Theological Resistance in The Trail of Blood
Carroll’s work portrays groups like the Waldensians, Albigensians, and Anabaptists as part of a pure, persecuted lineage of true believers who resisted the corrupt church-state alliance. This emphasis on a separatist, non-state-aligned Christianity resonates with broader themes of resistance to political and economic centralization.
While The Trail of Blood lacks historical rigor, it does articulate a theological argument that aligns with various resistance movements:
1. Ecclesiastical Decentralization – Carroll argues that the true church was always independent of state control, rejecting hierarchical structures like Catholicism and state-aligned Protestantism.
2. Persecution and Martyrdom – The groups he identifies as “Baptist forebears” were often at odds with both Catholic and Protestant state churches, portraying resistance as a mark of true faith.
3. Freedom of Conscience – The Baptists’ insistence on believer’s baptism and voluntary faith put them at odds with coercive religious structures, making them natural opponents of state-imposed Christianity.
4. Economic Autonomy – Many of these dissenting groups sought economic independence as part of their resistance. The Anabaptists, for example, formed communal societies to avoid reliance on state-backed economies, while others (e.g., Waldensians) engaged in self-sustaining trade outside of feudal and clerical control.
Resistance to Economic Coercion
Beyond resisting state-controlled religion, many of the groups Carroll identifies also opposed economic systems tied to religious and political coercion.
This resistance can be seen in several ways:
• Tithes and Forced Church Contributions – Many dissenters rejected mandatory church tithes enforced by the state, viewing them as an economic tool of oppression. The Reformation-era Anabaptists, for example, opposed state-supported churches that taxed the populace.
• Usury and Banking Systems – Some Christian movements resisted financial systems that exploited the poor. The Franciscans and Waldensians often critiqued church-sanctioned wealth accumulation and the rise of early banking systems.
• Guilds and Trade Restrictions – Many dissenting groups were excluded from economic participation due to their non-conformity. The Huguenots, Waldensians, and others often faced economic persecution, forcing them to develop underground economies or migrate.
Biblical and Theological Foundations of Resistance
The tension between submission to governing authorities (Romans 13) and resistance to unjust systems (Acts 5:29) is a major theme in Christian thought. Economic coercion is often tied to idolatry, unjust rulers, and reliance on human power instead of divine provision. Consider:
• The Year of Jubilee (Leviticus 25) – A biblical mandate for economic reset, freeing debts and restoring land to original owners, challenging exploitative economic structures.
• Jesus and Mammon (Matthew 6:24) – Jesus warns that one cannot serve both God and money, a critique of economic systems that demand ultimate loyalty.
• Revelation 13:16-17 – The mark of the beast is often interpreted as a form of economic control, forcing people to submit to a corrupt system for financial survival.
Modern Implications: Christianity and Economic Resistance
Today, these themes of resisting both state control and economic coercion remain relevant:
• Religious Freedom and Financial Penalties – Governments have used financial pressure (e.g., taxation, fines, loss of employment) to suppress religious dissent.
• Surveillance and Economic Compliance – Digital currencies and financial tracking raise concerns about economic coercion, particularly in restricting dissenting religious groups.
• Self-Sufficiency and Decentralization – Some Christian communities (e.g., Amish, certain home-church movements) advocate for economic independence as part of their faith practice.
Conclusion
While The Trail of Blood is not a reliable historical account, its core theme—resistance to state-controlled religion and economic coercion—is a recurring issue in Christian thought. The question remains: Should Christianity resist state and economic control entirely, or is there a role for faithful engagement? The historical and theological tensions between dependence, resistance, and stewardship continue to shape Christian communities today.
